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Doc/library/inspect.rst
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[doc] Fix indentation in inspect documentation (GH-24846) (GH-26288)
21 май 2021, 20:06
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:mod:`inspect` --- Inspect live objects ======================================= .. module:: inspect :synopsis: Extract information and source code from live objects. .. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org> .. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org> **Source code:** :source:`Lib/inspect.py` -------------- The :mod:`inspect` module provides several useful functions to help get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback. There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the interpreter stack. .. _inspect-types: Types and members ----------------- The :func:`getmembers` function retrieves the members of an object such as a class or module. The functions whose names begin with "is" are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to :func:`getmembers`. They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special attributes: .. this function name is too big to fit in the ascii-art table below .. |coroutine-origin-link| replace:: :func:`sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth` +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | Type | Attribute | Description | +===========+===================+===========================+ | module | __doc__ | documentation string | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __file__ | filename (missing for | | | | built-in modules) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | class | __doc__ | documentation string | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __name__ | name with which this | | | | class was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __qualname__ | qualified name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __module__ | name of module in which | | | | this class was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | method | __doc__ | documentation string | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __name__ | name with which this | | | | method was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __qualname__ | qualified name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __func__ | function object | | | | containing implementation | | | | of method | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __self__ | instance to which this | | | | method is bound, or | | | | ``None`` | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __module__ | name of module in which | | | | this method was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | function | __doc__ | documentation string | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __name__ | name with which this | | | | function was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __qualname__ | qualified name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __code__ | code object containing | | | | compiled function | | | | :term:`bytecode` | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __defaults__ | tuple of any default | | | | values for positional or | | | | keyword parameters | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __kwdefaults__ | mapping of any default | | | | values for keyword-only | | | | parameters | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __globals__ | global namespace in which | | | | this function was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __annotations__ | mapping of parameters | | | | names to annotations; | | | | ``"return"`` key is | | | | reserved for return | | | | annotations. | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __module__ | name of module in which | | | | this function was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | traceback | tb_frame | frame object at this | | | | level | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | tb_lasti | index of last attempted | | | | instruction in bytecode | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | tb_lineno | current line number in | | | | Python source code | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | tb_next | next inner traceback | | | | object (called by this | | | | level) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | frame | f_back | next outer frame object | | | | (this frame's caller) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_builtins | builtins namespace seen | | | | by this frame | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_code | code object being | | | | executed in this frame | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_globals | global namespace seen by | | | | this frame | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_lasti | index of last attempted | | | | instruction in bytecode | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_lineno | current line number in | | | | Python source code | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_locals | local namespace seen by | | | | this frame | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | f_trace | tracing function for this | | | | frame, or ``None`` | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | code | co_argcount | number of arguments (not | | | | including keyword only | | | | arguments, \* or \*\* | | | | args) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_code | string of raw compiled | | | | bytecode | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_cellvars | tuple of names of cell | | | | variables (referenced by | | | | containing scopes) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_consts | tuple of constants used | | | | in the bytecode | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_filename | name of file in which | | | | this code object was | | | | created | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_firstlineno | number of first line in | | | | Python source code | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_flags | bitmap of ``CO_*`` flags, | | | | read more :ref:`here | | | | <inspect-module-co-flags>`| +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_lnotab | encoded mapping of line | | | | numbers to bytecode | | | | indices | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_freevars | tuple of names of free | | | | variables (referenced via | | | | a function's closure) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_posonlyargcount| number of positional only | | | | arguments | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_kwonlyargcount | number of keyword only | | | | arguments (not including | | | | \*\* arg) | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_name | name with which this code | | | | object was defined | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_names | tuple of names of local | | | | variables | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_nlocals | number of local variables | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_stacksize | virtual machine stack | | | | space required | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | co_varnames | tuple of names of | | | | arguments and local | | | | variables | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | generator | __name__ | name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __qualname__ | qualified name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | gi_frame | frame | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | gi_running | is the generator running? | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | gi_code | code | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | gi_yieldfrom | object being iterated by | | | | ``yield from``, or | | | | ``None`` | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | coroutine | __name__ | name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __qualname__ | qualified name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | cr_await | object being awaited on, | | | | or ``None`` | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | cr_frame | frame | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | cr_running | is the coroutine running? | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | cr_code | code | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | cr_origin | where coroutine was | | | | created, or ``None``. See | | | | |coroutine-origin-link| | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | builtin | __doc__ | documentation string | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __name__ | original name of this | | | | function or method | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __qualname__ | qualified name | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ | | __self__ | instance to which a | | | | method is bound, or | | | | ``None`` | +-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Add ``__qualname__`` and ``gi_yieldfrom`` attributes to generators. The ``__name__`` attribute of generators is now set from the function name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified. .. versionchanged:: 3.7 Add ``cr_origin`` attribute to coroutines. .. function:: getmembers(object[, predicate]) Return all the members of an object in a list of ``(name, value)`` pairs sorted by name. If the optional *predicate* argument—which will be called with the ``value`` object of each member—is supplied, only members for which the predicate returns a true value are included. .. note:: :func:`getmembers` will only return class attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass' custom :meth:`__dir__`. .. function:: getmodulename(path) Return the name of the module named by the file *path*, without including the names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of the entries in :func:`importlib.machinery.all_suffixes`. If it matches, the final path component is returned with the extension removed. Otherwise, ``None`` is returned. Note that this function *only* returns a meaningful name for actual Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will still return ``None``. .. versionchanged:: 3.3 The function is based directly on :mod:`importlib`. .. function:: ismodule(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a module. .. function:: isclass(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python code. .. function:: ismethod(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a bound method written in Python. .. function:: isfunction(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a Python function, which includes functions created by a :term:`lambda` expression. .. function:: isgeneratorfunction(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a Python generator function. .. versionchanged:: 3.8 Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the wrapped function is a Python generator function. .. function:: isgenerator(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a generator. .. function:: iscoroutinefunction(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a :term:`coroutine function` (a function defined with an :keyword:`async def` syntax). .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. versionchanged:: 3.8 Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the wrapped function is a :term:`coroutine function`. .. function:: iscoroutine(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a :term:`coroutine` created by an :keyword:`async def` function. .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. function:: isawaitable(object) Return ``True`` if the object can be used in :keyword:`await` expression. Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular generators:: def gen(): yield @types.coroutine def gen_coro(): yield assert not isawaitable(gen()) assert isawaitable(gen_coro()) .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. function:: isasyncgenfunction(object) Return ``True`` if the object is an :term:`asynchronous generator` function, for example:: >>> async def agen(): ... yield 1 ... >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen) True .. versionadded:: 3.6 .. versionchanged:: 3.8 Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the wrapped function is a :term:`asynchronous generator` function. .. function:: isasyncgen(object) Return ``True`` if the object is an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator` created by an :term:`asynchronous generator` function. .. versionadded:: 3.6 .. function:: istraceback(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a traceback. .. function:: isframe(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a frame. .. function:: iscode(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a code. .. function:: isbuiltin(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method. .. function:: isroutine(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method. .. function:: isabstract(object) Return ``True`` if the object is an abstract base class. .. function:: ismethoddescriptor(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a method descriptor, but not if :func:`ismethod`, :func:`isclass`, :func:`isfunction` or :func:`isbuiltin` are true. This, for example, is true of ``int.__add__``. An object passing this test has a :meth:`~object.__get__` method but not a :meth:`~object.__set__` method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute is usually sensible, and :attr:`__doc__` often is. Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests return ``False`` from the :func:`ismethoddescriptor` test, simply because the other tests promise more -- you can, e.g., count on having the :attr:`__func__` attribute (etc) when an object passes :func:`ismethod`. .. function:: isdatadescriptor(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a data descriptor. Data descriptors have a :attr:`~object.__set__` or a :attr:`~object.__delete__` method. Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data descriptors will also have :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`__doc__` attributes (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed. .. function:: isgetsetdescriptor(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a getset descriptor. .. impl-detail:: getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return ``False``. .. function:: ismemberdescriptor(object) Return ``True`` if the object is a member descriptor. .. impl-detail:: Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return ``False``. .. _inspect-source: Retrieving source code ---------------------- .. function:: getdoc(object) Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with :func:`cleandoc`. If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance hierarchy. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden. .. function:: getcomments(object) Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the object's source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object's source code is unavailable, return ``None``. This could happen if the object has been defined in C or the interactive shell. .. function:: getfile(object) Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or function. .. function:: getmodule(object) Try to guess which module an object was defined in. .. function:: getsourcefile(object) Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or function. .. function:: getsourcelines(object) Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first line of code was found. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. .. versionchanged:: 3.3 :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the former. .. function:: getsource(object) Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a single string. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. .. versionchanged:: 3.3 :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the former. .. function:: cleandoc(doc) Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks of code. All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces. .. _inspect-signature-object: Introspecting callables with the Signature object ------------------------------------------------- .. versionadded:: 3.3 The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the :func:`signature` function. .. function:: signature(callable, *, follow_wrapped=True) Return a :class:`Signature` object for the given ``callable``:: >>> from inspect import signature >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs): ... pass >>> sig = signature(foo) >>> str(sig) '(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)' >>> str(sig.parameters['b']) 'b:int' >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation <class 'int'> Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to :func:`functools.partial` objects. Raises :exc:`ValueError` if no signature can be provided, and :exc:`TypeError` if that type of object is not supported. A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior to it are positional-only. For more info, see :ref:`the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters <faq-positional-only-arguments>`. .. versionadded:: 3.5 ``follow_wrapped`` parameter. Pass ``False`` to get a signature of ``callable`` specifically (``callable.__wrapped__`` will not be used to unwrap decorated callables.) .. note:: Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of Python. For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about their arguments. .. class:: Signature(parameters=None, *, return_annotation=Signature.empty) A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a :class:`Parameter` object in its :attr:`parameters` collection. The optional *parameters* argument is a sequence of :class:`Parameter` objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e. positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with defaults follow parameters without defaults. The optional *return_annotation* argument, can be an arbitrary Python object, is the "return" annotation of the callable. Signature objects are *immutable*. Use :meth:`Signature.replace` to make a modified copy. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Signature objects are picklable and hashable. .. attribute:: Signature.empty A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation. .. attribute:: Signature.parameters An ordered mapping of parameters' names to the corresponding :class:`Parameter` objects. Parameters appear in strict definition order, including keyword-only parameters. .. versionchanged:: 3.7 Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3. .. attribute:: Signature.return_annotation The "return" annotation for the callable. If the callable has no "return" annotation, this attribute is set to :attr:`Signature.empty`. .. method:: Signature.bind(*args, **kwargs) Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters. Returns :class:`BoundArguments` if ``*args`` and ``**kwargs`` match the signature, or raises a :exc:`TypeError`. .. method:: Signature.bind_partial(*args, **kwargs) Works the same way as :meth:`Signature.bind`, but allows the omission of some required arguments (mimics :func:`functools.partial` behavior.) Returns :class:`BoundArguments`, or raises a :exc:`TypeError` if the passed arguments do not match the signature. .. method:: Signature.replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation]) Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked on. It is possible to pass different ``parameters`` and/or ``return_annotation`` to override the corresponding properties of the base signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in :attr:`Signature.empty`. :: >>> def test(a, b): ... pass >>> sig = signature(test) >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno") >>> str(new_sig) "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'" .. classmethod:: Signature.from_callable(obj, *, follow_wrapped=True) Return a :class:`Signature` (or its subclass) object for a given callable ``obj``. Pass ``follow_wrapped=False`` to get a signature of ``obj`` without unwrapping its ``__wrapped__`` chain. This method simplifies subclassing of :class:`Signature`:: class MySignature(Signature): pass sig = MySignature.from_callable(min) assert isinstance(sig, MySignature) .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. class:: Parameter(name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty) Parameter objects are *immutable*. Instead of modifying a Parameter object, you can use :meth:`Parameter.replace` to create a modified copy. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Parameter objects are picklable and hashable. .. attribute:: Parameter.empty A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and annotations. .. attribute:: Parameter.name The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid Python identifier. .. impl-detail:: CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form ``.0`` on the code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator expressions. .. versionchanged:: 3.6 These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like ``implicit0``. .. attribute:: Parameter.default The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default value, this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`. .. attribute:: Parameter.annotation The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`. .. attribute:: Parameter.kind Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values (accessible via :class:`Parameter`, like ``Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY``): .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L| +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ | Name | Meaning | +========================+==============================================+ | *POSITIONAL_ONLY* | Value must be supplied as a positional | | | argument. Positional only parameters are | | | those which appear before a ``/`` entry (if | | | present) in a Python function definition. | +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ | *POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD*| Value may be supplied as either a keyword or | | | positional argument (this is the standard | | | binding behaviour for functions implemented | | | in Python.) | +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ | *VAR_POSITIONAL* | A tuple of positional arguments that aren't | | | bound to any other parameter. This | | | corresponds to a ``*args`` parameter in a | | | Python function definition. | +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ | *KEYWORD_ONLY* | Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.| | | Keyword only parameters are those which | | | appear after a ``*`` or ``*args`` entry in a | | | Python function definition. | +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ | *VAR_KEYWORD* | A dict of keyword arguments that aren't bound| | | to any other parameter. This corresponds to a| | | ``**kwargs`` parameter in a Python function | | | definition. | +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values:: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10): ... pass >>> sig = signature(foo) >>> for param in sig.parameters.values(): ... if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and ... param.default is param.empty): ... print('Parameter:', param) Parameter: c .. attribute:: Parameter.kind.description Describes a enum value of Parameter.kind. .. versionadded:: 3.8 Example: print all descriptions of arguments:: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10): ... pass >>> sig = signature(foo) >>> for param in sig.parameters.values(): ... print(param.kind.description) positional or keyword positional or keyword keyword-only keyword-only .. method:: Parameter.replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation]) Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked on. To override a :class:`Parameter` attribute, pass the corresponding argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a Parameter, pass :attr:`Parameter.empty`. :: >>> from inspect import Parameter >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42) >>> str(param) 'foo=42' >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param' 'foo=42' >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam')) "foo:'spam'" .. versionchanged:: 3.4 In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have ``name`` set to ``None`` if their ``kind`` was set to ``POSITIONAL_ONLY``. This is no longer permitted. .. class:: BoundArguments Result of a :meth:`Signature.bind` or :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` call. Holds the mapping of arguments to the function's parameters. .. attribute:: BoundArguments.arguments A mutable mapping of parameters' names to arguments' values. Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in :attr:`arguments` will reflect in :attr:`args` and :attr:`kwargs`. Should be used in conjunction with :attr:`Signature.parameters` for any argument processing purposes. .. note:: Arguments for which :meth:`Signature.bind` or :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` relied on a default value are skipped. However, if needed, use :meth:`BoundArguments.apply_defaults` to add them. .. versionchanged:: 3.9 :attr:`arguments` is now of type :class:`dict`. Formerly, it was of type :class:`collections.OrderedDict`. .. attribute:: BoundArguments.args A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the :attr:`arguments` attribute. .. attribute:: BoundArguments.kwargs A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the :attr:`arguments` attribute. .. attribute:: BoundArguments.signature A reference to the parent :class:`Signature` object. .. method:: BoundArguments.apply_defaults() Set default values for missing arguments. For variable-positional arguments (``*args``) the default is an empty tuple. For variable-keyword arguments (``**kwargs``) the default is an empty dict. :: >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam') >>> ba.apply_defaults() >>> ba.arguments {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()} .. versionadded:: 3.5 The :attr:`args` and :attr:`kwargs` properties can be used to invoke functions:: def test(a, *, b): ... sig = signature(test) ba = sig.bind(10, b=20) test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs) .. seealso:: :pep:`362` - Function Signature Object. The detailed specification, implementation details and examples. .. _inspect-classes-functions: Classes and functions --------------------- .. function:: getclasstree(classes, unique=False) Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes. If the *unique* argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise, classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple times. .. function:: getargspec(func) Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A :term:`named tuple` ``ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)`` is returned. *args* is a list of the parameter names. *varargs* and *keywords* are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` parameters or ``None``. *defaults* is a tuple of default argument values or ``None`` if there are no default arguments; if this tuple has *n* elements, they correspond to the last *n* elements listed in *args*. .. deprecated:: 3.0 Use :func:`getfullargspec` for an updated API that is usually a drop-in replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and keyword-only parameters. Alternatively, use :func:`signature` and :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a more structured introspection API for callables. .. function:: getfullargspec(func) Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A :term:`named tuple` is returned: ``FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations)`` *args* is a list of the positional parameter names. *varargs* is the name of the ``*`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary positional arguments are not accepted. *varkw* is the name of the ``**`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary keyword arguments are not accepted. *defaults* is an *n*-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the last *n* positional parameters, or ``None`` if there are no such defaults defined. *kwonlyargs* is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order. *kwonlydefaults* is a dictionary mapping parameter names from *kwonlyargs* to the default values used if no argument is supplied. *annotations* is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations. The special key ``"return"`` is used to report the function return value annotation (if any). Note that :func:`signature` and :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>` provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain compatibility with the Python 2 ``inspect`` module API. .. versionchanged:: 3.4 This function is now based on :func:`signature`, but still ignores ``__wrapped__`` attributes and includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output for bound methods. .. versionchanged:: 3.6 This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of :func:`signature` in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy :func:`getargspec` API. .. versionchanged:: 3.7 Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3. .. function:: getargvalues(frame) Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A :term:`named tuple` ``ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)`` is returned. *args* is a list of the argument names. *varargs* and *keywords* are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` arguments or ``None``. *locals* is the locals dictionary of the given frame. .. note:: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5. .. function:: formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]]) Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by :func:`getfullargspec`. The first seven arguments are (``args``, ``varargs``, ``varkw``, ``defaults``, ``kwonlyargs``, ``kwonlydefaults``, ``annotations``). The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names, ``*`` argument name, ``**`` argument name, default values, return annotation and individual annotations into strings, respectively. For example: >>> from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec >>> def f(a: int, b: float): ... pass ... >>> formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f)) '(a: int, b: float)' .. deprecated:: 3.5 Use :func:`signature` and :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a better introspecting API for callables. .. function:: formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue]) Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by :func:`getargvalues`. The format\* arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings. .. note:: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5. .. function:: getmro(cls) Return a tuple of class cls's base classes, including cls, in method resolution order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method resolution order depends on cls's type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple. .. function:: getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds) Bind the *args* and *kwds* to the argument names of the Python function or method *func*, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named ``self``) to the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` arguments, if any) to their values from *args* and *kwds*. In case of invoking *func* incorrectly, i.e. whenever ``func(*args, **kwds)`` would raise an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example:: >>> from inspect import getcallargs >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named): ... pass >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)} True >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()} True >>> getcallargs(f) Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a' .. versionadded:: 3.2 .. deprecated:: 3.5 Use :meth:`Signature.bind` and :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` instead. .. function:: getclosurevars(func) Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or method *func* to their current values. A :term:`named tuple` ``ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)`` is returned. *nonlocals* maps referenced names to lexical closure variables, *globals* to the function's module globals and *builtins* to the builtins visible from the function body. *unbound* is the set of names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the current module globals and builtins. :exc:`TypeError` is raised if *func* is not a Python function or method. .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. function:: unwrap(func, *, stop=None) Get the object wrapped by *func*. It follows the chain of :attr:`__wrapped__` attributes returning the last object in the chain. *stop* is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example, :func:`signature` uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the chain has a ``__signature__`` attribute defined. :exc:`ValueError` is raised if a cycle is encountered. .. versionadded:: 3.4 .. _inspect-stack: The interpreter stack --------------------- When the following functions return "frame records," each record is a :term:`named tuple` ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``. The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the current line, the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the index of the current line within that list. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Return a named tuple instead of a tuple. .. note:: Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much longer even if Python's optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs. Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a :keyword:`finally` clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or using :func:`gc.disable`. For example:: def handle_stackframe_without_leak(): frame = inspect.currentframe() try: # do something with the frame finally: del frame If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the :meth:`frame.clear` method. The optional *context* argument supported by most of these functions specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current line. .. function:: getframeinfo(frame, context=1) Get information about a frame or traceback object. A :term:`named tuple` ``Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned. .. function:: getouterframes(frame, context=1) Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of *frame*. The first entry in the returned list represents *frame*; the last entry represents the outermost call on *frame*'s stack. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>` ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned. .. function:: getinnerframes(traceback, context=1) Get a list of frame records for a traceback's frame and all inner frames. These frames represent calls made as a consequence of *frame*. The first entry in the list represents *traceback*; the last entry represents where the exception was raised. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>` ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned. .. function:: currentframe() Return the frame object for the caller's stack frame. .. impl-detail:: This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn't guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this function returns ``None``. .. function:: stack(context=1) Return a list of frame records for the caller's stack. The first entry in the returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>` ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned. .. function:: trace(context=1) Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the exception was raised. .. versionchanged:: 3.5 A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>` ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned. Fetching attributes statically ------------------------------ Both :func:`getattr` and :func:`hasattr` can trigger code execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and :meth:`__getattr__` and :meth:`__getattribute__` may be called. For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this can be inconvenient. :func:`getattr_static` has the same signature as :func:`getattr` but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes. .. function:: getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None) Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__`. Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find attributes that getattr can't (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects instead of instance members. If the instance :attr:`~object.__dict__` is shadowed by another member (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance members. .. versionadded:: 3.2 :func:`getattr_static` does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute. You can handle these with code like the following. Note that for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution:: # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types class _foo: __slots__ = ['foo'] slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo) getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name) wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__']) descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor) result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo') if type(result) in descriptor_types: try: result = result.__get__() except AttributeError: # descriptors can raise AttributeError to # indicate there is no underlying value # in which case the descriptor itself will # have to do pass Current State of Generators and Coroutines ------------------------------------------ When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already terminated. :func:`getgeneratorstate` allows the current state of a generator to be determined easily. .. function:: getgeneratorstate(generator) Get current state of a generator-iterator. Possible states are: * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression. * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed. .. versionadded:: 3.2 .. function:: getcoroutinestate(coroutine) Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be used with coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has ``cr_running`` and ``cr_frame`` attributes. Possible states are: * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression. * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed. .. versionadded:: 3.5 The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being updated as expected: .. function:: getgeneratorlocals(generator) Get the mapping of live local variables in *generator* to their current values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values. This is the equivalent of calling :func:`locals` in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply. If *generator* is a :term:`generator` with no currently associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned. :exc:`TypeError` is raised if *generator* is not a Python generator object. .. impl-detail:: This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn't guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always return an empty dictionary. .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. function:: getcoroutinelocals(coroutine) This function is analogous to :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorlocals`, but works for coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions. .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. _inspect-module-co-flags: Code Objects Bit Flags ---------------------- Python code objects have a ``co_flags`` attribute, which is a bitmap of the following flags: .. data:: CO_OPTIMIZED The code object is optimized, using fast locals. .. data:: CO_NEWLOCALS If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's ``f_locals`` when the code object is executed. .. data:: CO_VARARGS The code object has a variable positional parameter (``*args``-like). .. data:: CO_VARKEYWORDS The code object has a variable keyword parameter (``**kwargs``-like). .. data:: CO_NESTED The flag is set when the code object is a nested function. .. data:: CO_GENERATOR The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e. a generator object is returned when the code object is executed. .. data:: CO_NOFREE The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables. .. data:: CO_COROUTINE The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function. When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object. See :pep:`492` for more details. .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. data:: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in ``await`` expression, and can ``yield from`` coroutine objects. See :pep:`492` for more details. .. versionadded:: 3.5 .. data:: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator function. When the code object is executed it returns an asynchronous generator object. See :pep:`525` for more details. .. versionadded:: 3.6 .. note:: The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases. It's recommended to use public APIs from the :mod:`inspect` module for any introspection needs. .. _inspect-module-cli: Command Line Interface ---------------------- The :mod:`inspect` module also provides a basic introspection capability from the command line. .. program:: inspect By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object. .. cmdoption:: --details Print information about the specified object rather than the source code